On the quiet banks of the Vaigai River, not far from the coconut groves of Tamil Nadu’s Sivagangai district, lies Keeladi, an archaeological site that has become the centre of one of India’s most compelling historical debates. Over the past decade, Keeladi has yielded thousands of artefacts: terracotta ring wells, carnelian beads, brick structures, spindle whorls, graffiti marks, and most significantly, potsherds inscribed with Tamil-Brahmi script. Together, they paint a picture of a sophisticated urban settlement flourishing during the Early Historic period, contemporary with cities in the Gangetic plains yet rooted deeply in Tamil culture.

But Keeladi is more than a dig site. It is a flashpoint in the larger conversation about how India’s early history is constructed, interpreted and sometimes contested.

A Settlement Hidden in Plain Sight

Although excavations began only in 2015, the site spans roughly 110 acres. Less than five per cent of this area has been excavated, but even that has transformed our understanding of ancient South India.

Findings include:

●      Elaborate brick structures, indicating planned urban habitation.

●      Ring wells, a distinctive water-management system associated with ancient towns.

●      Fine pottery, metal tools and beads that point to craft specialization and trade.

●      Large quantities of faunal remains, showing dietary patterns and domestication.

The sheer volume of artefacts suggests a vibrant settlement with a level of sophistication previously associated primarily with North Indian sites like Ujjain, Mathura or Pataliputra.

The discovery of Tamil-Brahmi script etched onto everyday pottery is one of Keeladi’s most important contributions. Unlike royal inscriptions on rocks or pillars common in northern India, these were inscriptions made by ordinary people. Personal names scratched onto pots point to a society where literacy had filtered into common life.

The Tamil-Brahmi Puzzle: Rethinking Literacy in the South

Archaeologist K. Amarnath Ramakrishna, who directed the first two seasons of the ASI-led excavation, has argued that the widespread presence of Tamil-Brahmi on household items suggests a literate society long before the commonly accepted dates of the Sangam era.

This contrasts sharply with northern India, where Brahmi inscriptions appear almost exclusively on large rock edicts or pillars issued by emperors, especially Ashoka. Northern inscriptions tend to be more formal, administrative and religious in tone, suggesting a state-sponsored script used for governance or doctrinal instruction.

In the South, however, Tamil-Brahmi appears on:

●      Potsherd

●      Graffiti marks

●      Cave inscriptions

●      Donation records by Jain traders

These patterns hint at a grassroots spread of literacy, likely linked to trade networks, artisan guilds and evolving social structures.

Ramakrishna and other scholars argue that the evolution of Brahmi in the South may have been independent, or at least parallel, rather than solely borrowed from northern India, a proposition that challenges long-held assumptions in Indian historiography.

Indus Connections: A Controversial yet Fascinating Question

Archaeologist K. Rajan has observed symbolic similarities between Indus Valley glyphs and graffiti marks found across Tamil Nadu, including Keeladi. While this does not mean the Indus script has been deciphered, it suggests:

●      A continuity of symbolic traditions

●      The possibility of cultural memory surviving in proto-Dravidian regions

●      A need for far deeper excavation and cross-regional comparison

Scholars caution that no definitive conclusion can be drawn without bilingual inscriptions, but the hypothesis supported by nearly 60% symbol overlaps adds an exciting dimension to the debate.

The Unreleased Report and the Archaeological Debate

Keeladi’s significance took a dramatic turn when Ramakrishna’s final archaeological report, spanning 982 pages, remained unpublished for years. After court-directed submission in 2023, the ASI requested that he “rework” the chronology, citing insufficient justification for early dating.

Ramakrishna refused, stating that:

●      The stratigraphy and material culture support his conclusions.

●      AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) dating aligns with an early urban phase.

●      No archaeologist can alter dates without fresh excavation.

He maintains that his duty ends with documentation, and any reinterpretation must be evidence-based. The broader academic community has echoed concerns about transparency and the need for open publication of findings.

What Keeladi Reveals About Ordinary Life

One of the richest insights from Keeladi is its portrayal of commoners, rather than kings. Archaeology here uncovers:

●      Household items

●      Pots with personal markings

●      Agricultural tools

●      Jewelry pieces

●      Waste pits

●      Animal bones indicating diet and domestication

Unlike the grand narratives of kings and wars, Keeladi provides a window into the lived world of ancient Tamils, their homes, crafts, trade, literacy and rituals.

This aligns with Ramakrishna’s central argument: History must be constructed from material evidence, not myth-making or political reinterpretation.

The Need for Continued Excavation

Despite its significance, only a fraction of Keeladi has been investigated. Ramakrishna argues that the site demands:

●      Multiple seasons of systematic excavation

●      Collaboration between ASI, universities and state agencies

●      Protection of unexcavated areas from urban encroachment

●      Transparent, peer-reviewed publication of all findings

Tamil Nadu's state government has since taken over excavation responsibilities in many phases, but Ramakrishna insists that the ASI, as India’s premier archaeological institution, should remain involved for methodological rigour and national integration of findings.

Why Keeladi Matters

Keeladi is not merely about pottery or inscriptions. It is about rewriting or at least re-examining India’s early cultural map. Its findings indicate:

●      An urban settlement thriving in Tamil Nadu as early as the 6th century BCE (based on AMS dates)

●      Literacy among common people

●      A local script adapting or evolving in southern India

●      Craft production linked to trade networks

●      A cultural continuum that may bridge prehistoric symbols and Early Historic writing

If future excavations reinforce current evidence, Keeladi could reposition the South as a parallel centre of early urbanism rather than a periphery to the Gangetic plains.

A Civilization Waiting to Be Fully Unearthed

Keeladi remains, in many ways, the beginning of a story rather than its conclusion. It challenges established narratives, empowers material-based historical inquiry and calls for sustained scientific engagement. Only five per cent of the site has been excavated, yet it has already reshaped understandings of early South Indian civilization.

The real history of Keeladi, rooted in earth, artefacts and evidence, awaits the next generation of archaeologists who will uncover not only bricks and beads, but the living past of a people who left more beneath the soil than written on stone.